Cultural and Language Differences: Difference or Disorder?

Language difference vs language disorder

A language difference reflects the languages and dialects a child hears every day. A language disorder is a problem with the brain's ability to learn and use language, whatever the language. Telling them apart matters: children who are misjudged as disordered may be put in special education they do not need, while true disorders in bilingual children are often missed because adults assume "it is just the second language".

What is normal when a child learns two languages

Simultaneous and sequential learners

Children who hear two languages from birth (simultaneous bilinguals) reach milestones such as first words and first phrases within the same age range as children who learn one language. Their vocabulary may look small in each language alone, because some words are known only in one language. Counted together, the total is usually on track.

Children who learn a second language after the first is established (sequential bilinguals) commonly go through stages:

1. Home language use: the child keeps using the home language at school, even though others do not understand.
2. Silent period: the child mostly listens and may say very little for weeks to several months. This is normal and is not selective mutism, in which a child who can talk consistently does not speak in certain settings for more than a month (not counting the first month of school), and the silence is not explained by not knowing the language.
3. Telegraphic speech: short phrases and memorized chunks ("I go", "my turn").
4. Productive use: longer sentences, with errors that gradually fade.

Code-switching and language loss

Switching languages within a sentence is a normal skill, not confusion. Children often use whichever word comes first. Some children also start losing the home language once English takes over at school. This loss can look like a delay in the home language, so a careful history about language exposure is needed.

Social vs academic language

Conversational English usually develops within about 1 to 3 years. The academic language needed for reading comprehension, science and written work commonly takes 5 to 7 years. A child who chats easily at recess but struggles with classwork may simply still be building academic English.

Dialects and accents

Dialects such as African American English, Appalachian English or Spanish-influenced English follow consistent grammar rules. Features like "he be working" or dropping some word endings are correct within that dialect and are not errors to treat. Accents are not speech disorders either.

Signs that suggest a true disorder

Consider an evaluation when a child shows several of these, especially in both languages:

• Late first words and phrases in every language the child hears
• Difficulty following directions or answering questions in the home language
• Very limited vocabulary even after counting both languages
• Trouble learning new words despite repeated teaching
• Speech that family members from the same community find hard to understand
• A family history of speech, language or reading problems
• Social communication differences such as limited pointing, eye contact or shared interest, which can point to autism spectrum disorder

These signs fit developmental language disorder, hearing loss, autism or intellectual disability, which occur at similar rates in bilingual and monolingual children.

How a fair evaluation is done

A culturally responsive assessment by a speech-language pathologist usually includes:

• A detailed language history: when and how much the child hears and uses each language, at home, in daycare and at school.
• Parent report in the home language: parents are the best judges of whether the child talks like other children in their community.
• Testing in both languages: with a bilingual clinician or a trained interpreter, not a sibling or another child.
• Dynamic assessment: the clinician teaches a new skill and watches how fast the child learns. Children with a difference learn quickly; children with a disorder need much more support.
• Language samples: recordings of natural conversation or storytelling, which are fairer than standardized tests built for monolingual English speakers.
• A hearing test to rule out hearing loss.

In US public schools, federal law requires that evaluations be given in the child's native language when feasible, and that limited English proficiency is ruled out as the main cause before a child is found eligible for special education.

Support and treatment

• For a language difference: English language development services at school, plenty of reading and conversation, and patience. Speech therapy is not needed.
• For a disorder in a bilingual child: therapy that supports both languages where possible. Research does not show that dropping the home language speeds up English, and losing it can harm family communication.
• Keep the home language strong: talk, read, sing and tell stories in the language you know best. Rich home language skills transfer to English.

Bilingual children can also stutter or have speech sound problems. These are assessed with the same principle: look at all languages before deciding.

Frequently asked questions

Does speaking two languages cause speech delay?

No. Children raised with two languages reach first words and phrases at about the same ages as monolingual children. Their vocabulary in each language may be smaller, but combined vocabulary is usually typical. A child who is late in every language needs an evaluation; bilingualism should not be blamed for the delay.

What is the difference between a language difference and a language disorder?

A language difference comes from the languages or dialect a child is exposed to and affects only the newer language. A language disorder is a learning problem in the brain's language system, so it shows up in all of the child's languages, including the home language, and progress is slow even with good teaching.

Should we stop speaking our home language so our child learns English faster?

No. Speech-language and pediatric organizations recommend continuing the language you speak most fluently. Strong skills in the home language support later English learning, and children with language disorders can learn two languages. Switching to limited English at home reduces the quality of language a child hears.

How long is the silent period normal?

Many children starting a new language are quiet for a few weeks to several months, often longer in shy children. During this time they listen and understand more than they say. If the child also stays silent at home in their own language, or the silence lasts beyond about six months, talk to the school and your pediatrician.

Can a bilingual child have dyslexia or a learning disability?

Yes. Learning disabilities occur in bilingual children at similar rates. Warning signs include reading or spelling trouble in the home language too, or slow progress compared with other English learners from the same background despite good instruction. Assessment should consider both languages.